Table of Contents
As the title indicates, this book is about computers, graphics, and learning, as opposed to computer graphics for learning. There is a difference. This book considers and integrates a broad spectrum of information related to the instructional design of visual information for learning and how the computer supports this process. Another way to understand the distinction is to first consider the importance of the three topics independently and then how they relate to each other. The title lists the topics in order from least to most important, so we must start with the last topic -- learning -- and work our way forward. This is also the order that must be considered when making design decisions involving visualization techniques.
The learning process takes center stage and clearly dominates the other two topics throughout this book. Although the learning process is fascinating in and of itself, this book also guides and directs the construction of environments that nurture and enhance learning, often referred to simply as instruction. This book is written for the professionals who design and develop these environments in both formal and informal settings. These individuals are usually referred to as instructional designers and/or instructional developers. Many carry this title as the formal result of graduate-level training; others find such a role thrust upon them, perhaps unexpectedly. For this reason, this book is relevant to anyone concerned with or involved in designing graphics for instruction.
This book has a more specific mission beyond general instructional design: to exploit the potential of visualization techniques to enhance and improve learning. Graphics long have been a common part of all instructional strategies. Many of the most valuable principles of how visuals can help learning have been identified apart from computer applications. Therefore, designers have much to gain from applying the general theory and research related to visuals, memory, and learning to instructional design. Considering these knowledge bases becomes even more important when one understands that all graphics are not appropriate for all learning outcomes. Indeed, inappropriate uses of graphics can actually thwart well-intentioned instructional design. We resist the tendency to believe that efforts to apply computers and graphics to learning "break all the rules" of the available theory and research (even if it turns out later to be true in some places). Despite the attention to theory and research, we are careful to remember that our overriding goal throughout this book is application -- to apply what we know about visualization and learning to instructional design and development.
We finally come to the role of the computer. There is no question that the computer offers unprecedented graphical power for all designers, instructional and otherwise. The range, power, and number of graphical tools for desktop computers are increasing at an astonishing rate. Some of these tools are meant to increase the productivity of traditional print-based materials. Some, such as animation packages, increase the productivity of traditional video-based materials. Other tools, such as those that provide learners with "real-time, on-line" interaction, offer potentially new learning environments that would not be possible without computer technology. All this often creates a sense of urgency among designers and developers to know and incorporate the latest graphical tools in their courseware. However, we need to continually remind ourselves that "a power saw does not a carpenter make." There is a need to exploit the graphical power of computers for learning but not fall prey to the idea that using the latest technology is a substitute for good design. The danger of confusing good design with the mere use of the "latest and greatest" technology is particularly potent in the computer arena. The computer is considered here as but an arsenal, albeit an important and powerful one, of resources to facilitate learning by and through visualization techniques. As instructional designers, we need to stay in control of our "tools of the trade."
Finally, it is important to recognize that this book is not intended to teach you how to use a computer or to create computer graphics. Some attention is given to the development of computer graphics, but only to serve as an organizer to help you understand the range of desktop computer graphics applications. It is hoped the principles of this book remain relevant and useful as the computer industry improves and expands desktop computer graphics technology and, perhaps more importantly, as your ability and knowledge of how to develop computer graphics for instructional purposes grows. Although design and development are interdependent processes, our concern and attention is first and foremost on design. No formal training or background in psychology, instructional design, or computer graphics is considered prerequisite to reading this book, as all topics are written at an introductory level. However, this book is intended for graduate-level students.
OVERVIEW, SCOPE, AND ORGANIZATION OF THIS BOOK
Chapters 1, 2, and 3 provide a broad overview of instructional computer graphics. Chapter 1 provides a general introduction and describes the rationale and philosophy on which the book is based. Chapter 2 describes the three most common types of graphics in instruction and the range of learning outcomes in which these graphics can be applied. It then presents a brief overview of the most common instructional applications of graphics. Chapter 3 discusses the development of computer graphics. The purpose of this chapter is to compare and contrast general production procedures and techniques. However, this chapter is not meant to provide an exhaustive summary of the "how to's" of producing computer graphics. Production techniques in both "command-based" versus "GUI-based" graphics and authoring applications are presented.
Chapters 4, 5, and 6 present an overview of the status of instructional visual research. Chapter 4 provides an introduction to psychological foundations that sometimes support using graphics in instruction and other times warn against it. Included in this chapter are discussions on visual perception, visual cognition, and theories on storing visual information in short-term and long-term memory. This chapter also briefly describes some of the implications of learning theory on instructional graphic design. Chapter 5 summarizes the large pool of research dealing with static graphics, and chapter 6 summarizes the relatively scant pool dealing with animated graphics. Many of the research studies discussed in chapter 6 were conducted by the author, and so the discussions are presented firsthand.
Attention is turned to designing graphics in CBI in chapters 7 and 8. Chapter 7 summarizes the major aspects of CBI design in the context of when and how static and animated graphics should be integrated within CBI lessons. Chapter 8 deals specifically with the design of highly interactive visually based lesson activities, such as computer-based simulations. This chapter uses the microworld paradigm that has been suggested by the constructivist perspective on learning. Also discussed in this chapter is the concept of "virtual reality."
Finally, chapter 9 considers other sources of visuals, such as video, by presenting a brief overview of multimedia, which consists of integrated learning systems that join computers and peripherals -- such as videodisc and videotape players. These systems let learners experience a full range of sensory stimulation, including sound. Specific video applications of multimedia are better known as interactive video.
Design takes center stage in this book. The scant coverage of production does not mean it is unimportant, but rather underscores the perspective that design must drive production (although design is and should be influenced by production capabilities). This text also does not consider the design of visuals that are associated strictly with printed text, at least not as separate topics. Examples of issues not covered include how to select text type, text size, and text orientation (such as page justification). However, discussions of how graphics interrelate with text are relevant and are addressed here to some degree. The design of instructional text is represented well elsewhere (see, for example, Hartley, 1987; Hooper & Hannafin, 1986; Jonassen, 1982, 1984).
Finally, there is the issue of delivering instructional graphics produced by the computer, which can take one of at least two perspectives. The first and most obvious is delivery by computer, including (but not limited to) CBI applications. The other involves using the computer as the principal graphics design and development tool, then transferring the graphics to other delivery sources or "platforms" such as print-based materials, film, and video. Both delivery perspectives figure prominently in the book.
Each chapter begins with a brief overview, followed by instructional objectives for both the literal comprehension of the text and subsequent application of the principles described in the chapter. Readers are expected to complete the application objectives in a learning context that includes many other resources besides this book, such as training and guidance in instructional design and the use of relevant computer hardware and software. Together, the overview and objectives are meant as an orientation and guide. Each chapter is carefully organized and sectioned. Use the outline generated by the headings and subheadings as an additional learning guide. In addition to illustrative material, most chapters also have information boxes that contain separate and complete discussions and activities related to the main text. Chapters end with reviews which are not meant to substitute for actually reading the chapters but should help your understanding by emphasizing each chapter's main points. The reviews are also meant as a quick way to refresh your memory of the chapters without rereading.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The ideas represented in this book are the product of many years of play and work in educational computing, beginning for me as a public school teacher in New Mexico. I thank all the students I have worked with so far -- graduate students, as well as those I knew as grade school students -- for all they have taught me. The formal idea for this book was a result of teaching a course on instructional computer graphics in the Educational Technology Program at Texas A&M University. I am especially grateful to those students who patiently labored through and provided invaluable feedback on early drafts of this text. Many thanks go to them for their understanding as I struggled to put my ideas into written form. I especially thank Evelyn Wells for graciously allowing her work on color principles to be included in this book. I also thank Ronald Zellner and William Kealy, colleagues of mine at Texas A&M University, for sharing their expertise in this area with me. Many of the ideas represented here started as a result of "water-cooler" conversations with them on the topics of learning theory, instructional design, and visualization. Special thanks also go to Mary Boyce and her students at the University of Oklahoma for their comments on an early draft. I am very grateful to the reviewers for their excellent comments and suggestions.
I also thank the excellent professionals at Brown and Benchmark Publishers, especially Paul Tavenner and Michelle Campbell, for their support and service.
Finally and needless to say, I am grateful to my wife, Patricia, and my children, Rebecca and Thomas, for their understanding and sacrifices. This book would not have been possible without their support. I owe them a large debt, of which Pat has been careful to keep an accurate record!