Table 6.1

Table 6.1 Summary of Empirical Research on the Instructional Effects of Animation (listed alphabetically by author).

Study
Subjects
Content
Learning Outcome
Results Regarding Animation

No.
Age

Baek & Layne, 1988
119
High School
Mathematics (ave. speed)
rules
Anim>Static>Text

Comments: Students' attention was focused on information contained in the animation.

Caraballo, A., 1985
109
Adult
Computation of area of geometric shapes
facts, concepts, rules
NSD

Comments: Animation was used an aid to conceptual understanding, not as an elaboration of the lesson content.

Caraballo, J., 1985
109
Adult
Physiology of human heart
facts, comprehension
NSD

Comments:No pilot studies conducted to determine a need for external visualization.

Collins, Adams, & Pew, 1978
18
Adult
Geography of South America
facts
Interactive Map>
Labeled Map>
Unlabeled Map

Comments: Animation for attention-gaining within an interactive graphic (blinking dots).

King, 1975
45
Adult
Mathematics (sine ratio)
rules
NSD

Comments: Possible confounding due to an easy learning task, verbally-heavy tests which may not have been sensitive toward visualization tasks, and crude graphics.

Mayer & Anderson, 1991
102
Adult
How a bicycle pump works
problem solving Animation with narration>
Animation only=
Narration only=
Control

Comments: Study involved three separate experiments testing various predictions of dual coding theory. Summary above shows general results of the final experiment. Results of the first two experiments showed that animation with narration supports dual coding more than narrations before animation.

Moore, Nawrocki, & Simutis, 1979
90
Adult
Psychophysiology of audition
facts, rules
NSD

Comments: The study was confounded due to instructional design. A review was given to all students after each of four lesson parts if they did not achieve at least 85% master on the respective part. This induced an artificial ceiling effect.

Reed, 1985 180 Adult
Algebra word problems
rules, problem-solving
Mixed according to word problem type

Comments: Lessons were iteratively improved over the course of four separate experiments. Animation was effective when replacing rather than supplementing verbal information.

Rieber & Hannafin, 1988
111
Children (elem.)
Newton's laws of motion
rules, problem-solving
NSD

Comments: There was not enough variance in the lesson treatments. Animation not powerful enough effect, especially within an orienting activity. Students also found the material very difficult to understand.

Rieber, 1989
192
Children (elem.)
Newton's laws of motion
facts, rules
NSD

Comments: The study may have been confounded due to the difficulty of the content. Students may not have been attending to the animation appropriately as evidenced by latency data of the time spent by students processing each frame of instruction.

Rieber, 1990b
119
Children (elem.) Newton's laws of motion
rules, problem-solving Animation>Static=
None; Interaction
between visuals &
practice

Comments: Animation most effective as a presentation strategy when practice support was moderate. The structured simulation was effective as a practice strategy.

Rieber, 1991a
70
Children (elem.)
Newton's laws of motion
rules, problem-solving (intentional and incidental)
Animation>Static

Comments: Evidence that the visually-based structured simulation was intrinsically motivating for students. Students also learned a rule incidentally from an animated display, but they also became prone to a scientific misconception.

Rieber, in press
39
Children
Newton's laws of motion
rules Chunked Anim.>
Static

Comments: Animation was an effective presentation strategy, but only when screens were presented in parts, or "chunks," to aid students in selectively attending to information in the animated visual.

Rieber, Boyce, & Alkindi, 1991
127
Adult
Acceleration & Velocity
rules (near and far transfer) NSD on orienting
activity; Simulation
results mixed

Comments: A visually-based simulation was ineffective as an orienting activity, but effective as a practice strategy for near transfer tasks only. Feedback from subjects indicated that they found the content quite demanding. They also seemed uncomfortable with the simulation in that they seemed to expect more structure.

Rieber, Boyce, & Assad, 1990
141
Adult
Newton's laws of motion
rules, problem-solving NSD on learning;
Animation>Static>
None on response latency

Comments: Although no differences were found on performance measures, animated presentations may have aided organization and retrieval as evidenced by latency data on posttest. Structured simulation generally effective as practice strategy.

Rieber & Parmley, 1992
160
Adult
Newton's laws of Motion
rules Structured Sim=
All Tutorial Groups>Unstructured Sim& Test Only Groups

Comments: Subjects were able to inductively learn from a structured simulation, but not an unstructured simulation. Subjects' response confidence lower without access to traditional tutorial.

Rigney & Lutz [Alesandrini], 1975
40
Adult
Science: How a battery works
facts, concepts, rules Pictorial group>
verbal group

Comments: Since there was no control for the use of static versus animated graphics, effectiveness of animation can not be inferred from the results.

Study	Subjects		Content	Learning Outcome	Results Regarding Animation
	No.	Age

Baek & Layne, 1988	119	High School	Mathematics (ave. speed)	rules	Anim>Static>Text
Comments: Students' attention was focused on information contained in the animation.

Caraballo, A., 1985	109	Adult	Computation of area of geometric shapes	facts, concepts, rules	NSD
Comments: Animation was used an aid to conceptual understanding, not as an elaboration of the lesson content.

Caraballo, J., 1985	109	Adult	Physiology of human heart	facts, comprehension	NSD
Comments:No pilot studies conducted to determine a need for external visualization.

Collins, Adams, & Pew, 1978	18	Adult	Geography of South America	facts	Interactive Map> Labeled Map> Unlabeled Map
Comments: Animation for attention-gaining within an interactive graphic (blinking dots).

King, 1975	45	Adult	Mathematics (sine ratio)	rules	NSD
Comments: Possible confounding due to an easy learning task, verbally-heavy tests which may not have been sensitive toward visualization tasks, and crude graphics.

Mayer & Anderson, 1991	102	Adult	How a bicycle pump works	problem solving	Animation with narration> Animation only= Narration only= Control
Comments: Study involved three separate experiments testing various predictions of dual coding theory. Summary above shows general results of the final experiment. Results of the first two experiments showed that animation with narration supports dual coding more than narrations before animation.

Moore, Nawrocki, & Simutis, 1979	90	Adult	Psychophysiology of audition	facts, rules	NSD
Comments: The study was confounded due to instructional design. A review was given to all students after each of four lesson parts if they did not achieve at least 85% master on the respective part. This induced an artificial ceiling effect.

Reed, 1985	180	Adult	Algebra word problems	rules, problem-solving	Mixed according to word problem type
Comments: Lessons were iteratively improved over the course of four separate experiments. Animation was effective when replacing rather than supplementing verbal information.

Rieber & Hannafin, 1988	111	Children (elem.)	Newton's laws of motion	rules, problem-solving	NSD
Comments: There was not enough variance in the lesson treatments. Animation not powerful enough effect, especially within an orienting activity. Students also found the material very difficult to understand.

Rieber, 1989	192	Children (elem.)	Newton's laws of motion	facts, rules	NSD
Comments: The study may have been confounded due to the difficulty of the content. Students may not have been attending to the animation appropriately as evidenced by latency data of the time spent by students processing each frame of instruction.

Rieber, 1990b	119	Children (elem.)	Newton's laws of motion	rules, problem-solving	Animation>Static= None; Interaction between visuals & practice
Comments: Animation most effective as a presentation strategy when practice support was moderate. The structured simulation was effective as a practice strategy.

Rieber, 1991a	70	Children (elem.)	Newton's laws of motion	rules, problem-solving (intentional and incidental)	Animation>Static
Comments: Evidence that the visually-based structured simulation was intrinsically motivating for students. Students also learned a rule incidentally from an animated display, but they also became prone to a scientific misconception.

Rieber, in press	39	Children	Newton's laws of motion	rules	Chunked Anim.> Static
Comments: Animation was an effective presentation strategy, but only when screens were presented in parts, or "chunks," to aid students in selectively attending to information in the animated visual.

Rieber, Boyce, & Alkindi, 1991	127	Adult	Acceleration & Velocity	rules (near and far transfer)	NSD on orienting activity; Simulation results mixed
Comments: A visually-based simulation was ineffective as an orienting activity, but effective as a practice strategy for near transfer tasks only. Feedback from subjects indicated that they found the content quite demanding. They also seemed uncomfortable with the simulation in that they seemed to expect more structure.

Rieber, Boyce, & Assad, 1990	141	Adult	Newton's laws of motion	rules, problem-solving	NSD on learning; Animation>Static> None on response latency
Comments: Although no differences were found on performance measures, animated presentations may have aided organization and retrieval as evidenced by latency data on posttest. Structured simulation generally effective as practice strategy.

Rieber & Parmley, 1992	160	Adult	Newton's laws of Motion	rules	Structured Sim= All Tutorial Groups>Unstructured Sim& Test Only Groups
Comments: Subjects were able to inductively learn from a structured simulation, but not an unstructured simulation. Subjects' response confidence lower without access to traditional tutorial.

Rigney & Lutz [Alesandrini], 1975	40	Adult	Science: How a battery works	facts, concepts, rules	Pictorial group> verbal group
Comments: Since there was no control for the use of static versus animated graphics, effectiveness of animation can not be inferred from the results.